Principles of Management Multi Organ Failure Essay Example

Principles of Management : Multi Organ Failure Essay * Day 6 – 7 /ABC * ABC Principles of Management : Multi Organ Failure /MODS * PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT : ABC / Multi Organ Failure (MODS) * Multiorgan dysfunction syndrome (MODS) is the progressive dysfunction of more than one organ in patients that are critically ill or injured. * It is the leading cause of death in intensive care units (ICUs). * The initial insult that stimulates MODS may result from a variety of causes including, but not limited to, extensive burns, trauma, cardiorespiratory failure, multiple blood transfusions, and most commonly, systemic infection. Schumaker, 2006) * The term MODS has been referred to interchangeably as systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) and multisystem organ failure (MSOF). (Schumaker, 2006) * A. Determination and Management Multi Organ Failure: Etiology and Risk Factors * Causes of MODS include: * dead tissue * injured tissue * infection * perfusion deficits * persistent sources of inflammation such as pancreatitis or pneumo nitis * High Risk for developing MODS : * Impaired immune responses such as older adults clients with chronic illnesses * clients with malnutrition * and clients with cancer * Clients with prolonged or exaggerated inflammatory responses are at risk, including victims of severe trauma and clients with sepsis * Multi Organ Failure: Classification * 1. Primary MODS – * results directly from a well-defined insult in which organ dysfunction occurs early and is directly attributed to the insult itself. â€Å" * The direct insult initially causes a localized inflammatory response that may or may not progress to SIRS. An example of primary MODS is a primary pulmonary injury, such as aspiration. * Only a small percentage of clients develop primary MODS. * Multi Organ Failure: Classification * 2. Secondary MODS * is a consequence of widespread systemic inflammation, which develops after a variety of insults, and results in dysfunction of organs not involved in the initial insult. * Th e client enters a hypermetabolic, state that lasts for 14 to 21 days.. * During this body engages in autocatabolism : which causes changes in the bodys metabolic processes. rocess can be stopped,. the outcome for the death. * Secondary MODS occurs with condition septic shock and ARDS. (Black,2005 , p2474) * Multi Organ Failure: Clinical Manifestations * There is usually a precipitating event to MOD: * aspiration, * ruptured aneurysm * Septic shock which is associated with resultant hypotension. * The client is resuscitated; the cause is treated; and appears to do well for a few days. * The following possible sequence of events often develops. * Multi Organ Failure: Clinical Manifestations The client experiences SIRS before MODS Within a few days * there is an insidious onset grade fever, tachycardia, increased numbers and segmented neutrophils on the different count (called a left shift), * dyspnea with the diffuse patchy infiltrates on the chest x-ray client * often has some deteri oration in mental reasonably normal renal and hepatic laboratory results * Multi Organ Failure: Clinical Manifestations * Dyspnea progresses, and intubation and mechanical ventilation are required. * Some evidence of agulopathy (DIC) is usually present. * The client is usually stable hemodynamically and has relative polyuria, n increased in cardiac index (greater than 4. 5 l/min), * Systemic vascular resistance of less 600 dynes cm-5 Clients often have increased blood glucose level in the absence of diabetes * Multi Organ Failure: Clinical Manifestations * Between 7 and 10 days: * Bilirubin level increases and continues to increase, followed serum creatinine. * Blood glucose and lactate level continue to increase because of the hypermetabolic state. * Other progressive changes include nitrogen and protein combined with decrease level of serum albumin, pre-albumin, and retinol binding protein * Multi Organ Failure: Clinical Manifestations Between 7 and 10 days * Bacteremia with enter ic organism is common and infection from candida viruses such as herpes and cytomegalovirus are common. * Surgical wound fail to heal, and pressure ulcer may develop. * During this time, the client needs increasing amounts of fluids and inotropic medications to keep blood volume and cardiac preload near normal and to replace fluid lost through polyuria * Multi Organ Failure: Clinical Manifestations * Between day 14 and day 21: * The client is unstable appears close to death. * The client may lose consciousness Renal failure worsens to the point needs dialysis. * Edema may he present because of low serum protein levels. * Mixed venous oxygen level may increase because of problems with tissue uptake of oxygen caused by mitochondrial dysfunction. * Lactic acidosis worsens, liver enzymes continue to increase, and coagulation disorders become impossible to correct. * Multi Organ Failure: Prognosis * If the process of MODS is not reversed by day 21, it is usually evident that the client w ill die. * Death usually occurs between days 21 and 28 after the injury or precipitating event. Not all clients with MODS die; however, MODS remains the leading cause of death in the intensive care unit with mortality rates from 50% to 90% despite the development of better antibiotics, better resuscitation, and more sophisticated means of organ support. * Multi Organ Failure: Prognosis * For those clients who survive, the average duration of intensive care unit stay is about 21 days. * The rehabilitation, which is directed at recovery of muscle mass and neuromuscular function, lasts about 10 months. * Multi Organ Failure: Medical Management * Restrain the Activators: Manifestations of potential infection must be quickly treated to restrain the activators of MODS. * If the agent is known, antibiotics to which the organism is sensitive should be administered. * If the organism is not -known, broad-spectrum antibiotics are given * If the severity of the sepsis is identified early and d rotrecogin alfa (Xigris) is ad ministered, progression to MODS may be prevented * Multi Organ Failure: Medical Management * If there is progression, the lungs are often the first organs to fail and so require special attention. Aggressive pulmonary care is needed in all clients who are at risk of MODS. * Interventions may be as simple as coughing and deep breathing or ambulation. * The clients oxygen saturation should be monitored as well. * Malnutrition develops from the hypermetabolism and the GI tract often seeds other areas with bacteria, some clinicians require the client to be fed enterally. * They believe that feeding enhances perfusion and decreases the bacterial load and the effects of endotoxins * Multi Organ Failure: Nursing Management Care of the client with MODS is multifaceted, balancing the needs of one system against the needs of another while trying to maintain optimal functioning of each system * Nursing diagnoses appropriate for the client with MODS * The number of independent nursing interventions for the client with MODS is limited. * Multi Organ Failure: Nursing Management * The overall goal for nursing is effective client and family coping: * Nurses must remain sensitive to the needs of the family. Caring for the family of critically ill clients is a challenge in that understanding, predicting, and intervening with families in crisis is less exact, than the calculation of oxygen needs. * There are no easy formulas to use to provide hope, courage, coping, and caring. * Nurses must remain alert to the needs of the family as well as the client during this stressful time. * B. Life saving and Intervention * Detailed discussion and return demo will be discussed on EDN and Vines laboratory. * 1. First Aid Measure * 2. Basic Life Support * 3. Advance Cardiac Life support * First aid measures Is an immediate care given to a person who have been injured or suddenly taken ill. * It includes self help and home care when medical assistance is delayed or not available. * Roles of First Aid: * Bridge that fills the gap between the victim and the physician. * It is not intended to compete with nor take the place of the services of the Physician. * It ends when medical assistan ce begins. * Basic Life Support ( BLS) * An emergency procedure that consists of recognizing respiratory arrest and cardiac arrest or both and the proper application of CPR to maintain life or until a victim recovers or advanced life support is available. C-A-B steps : * Circulation restored * Airway opened * Breathing restored * ADVANCE CARDIAC LIFE SUPPORT (ACLS) * Refers to a set of clinical interventions for the urgent treatment of cardiac arrest and other life threatening medical emergencies, as well as the knowledge and skills to deploy those interventions. [1] * ADVANCE CARDIAC LIFE SUPPORT (ACLS) * Extensive medical knowledge and rigorous hands-on training and practice are required to master ACLS. Only qualified health care providers * (e. g. hysicians, paramedics, nurses, respiratory therapists, clinical pharmacists, physician assistants, nurse practitioners * and other specially trained health care providers) can provide ACLS, as it requires the ability to manage the patie nts airway, initiate IV access, read and interpret electrocardiograms, and understand emergency pharmacology. * Fluid Resuscitation (Study) * The infusion of isotonic IV fluids to a hypotensive Pt with trauma; aggressive FR may disrupt thrombi, ^ bleeding, and v  survival * Intravenous literature: Boyd, J. H. , Forbes, J. , Nakada, T. A. , Walley, K. We will write a custom essay sample on Principles of Management : Multi Organ Failure specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Principles of Management : Multi Organ Failure specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Principles of Management : Multi Organ Failure specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer R. and Russell, J. A. (2010) * Fluid resuscitation in septic shock: A positive fluid balance and elevated central venous pressure are associated with increased mortality. Critical Care Medicine. 2010 Oct 21 * FLUID RESCUCITATION * Fluid replacement or fluid resuscitation is the medical practice of replenishing bodily fluid lost through sweating, bleeding, fluid shifts or pathologic processes. * Fluids can be replaced via oral administration (drinking), intravenous administration, rectally, or hypodermoclysis, the direct injection of fluid into the subcutaneous tissue. Fluids administered by the oral and hypodermic routes are absorbed more slowly than those given intravenously. * FLUID RESCUCITATION * Procedure * It is important to achieve a fluid status that is good enough to avoid oliguria (low urine production). * Oliguria has various limits, a urine output of 0. 5mL/kg/hr In adults is adequate and suggests adequate organ perfusion. * The parkland formula is not perfect and fluid t herapy will need to be titrated to hemodynamic values and urine output. * The speed of Fluid Replacement may differ between procedures. * The planning of fluid eplacement for burn victims is based on the Parkland formula (4mL Lactated Ringers/kg/% TBSA burned). * The parkland formula gives the minimum amount to be given in 24 hours. * Half of the value is given over the first eight hours after the time of the burn (not from time of admission to ED) and the other half over the next 16 hours. * In dehydration, 2/3 of the deficit may be given in 4 hours, and the rest during approx. 20 hours * FLUID RESCUCITATION The initial volume expansion period is called the fluid challenge, and may be distinguished from succeeding maintenance administration of fluids. During the fluid challenge, large amounts of fluids may be administered over a short period of time under close monitoring to evaluate the patient’s response. * Fluid challenge, as the procedure of giving large amounts of fluid in a short time, may be reserved for hemodynamically unstable patients, distinguished from conventional fluid administration for patients who are not acutely ill, who receive fluids as part of a diagnostic study, or for less acutely ill patients in whom fluid administration can be guided by fluid intake and output recordings. VARIOUS FLUIDS USED IN FLUID RESCUSITATION * Crystalloids are solutions of mineral salts or other water-soluble molecules. * we are talking about salt (saline) ; Since isotonic fluids have the same concentration as the normal cells of the body and blood, when infused intravenously, they will remain in the intravascular space. * Normal saline (0. 9% NaCl) and lactated Ringers solution are typical isotonic fluids with sugar in (dextr ose) * Hypertonic fluids –( 3% NaCl) have a higher particle concentration than in normal cells of the body and the blood. These agents draw fluid into the intravascular space from cells. * Hypertonic saline (3% NaCl) is a common hypertonic fluid. * Hypotonic fluids * (0. 45 normal saline, 0. 33 NaCl) are composed mostly of free water and will enter the cells rather than remain in the intravascular space. * Normal saline and lactated Ringers are the two balanced salt solutions most commonly used in current fluid resuscitation * Other products * Albumin, * one of the original plasma expanders, is a protein that maintains osmotic pressure in a cell and helps the cell maintain its internal fluid. When we read about protein in urine, especially in diabetics and those with kidney disease, we are talking about albumin. * Blood transfusion is the only approved fluid replacement capable of carrying oxygen * C. Life Maintaining Intervention * C. 1 AIRWAY MANAGEMENT By: Angkana Lurngnat eetape, MD. * Indication for tracheal intubation * ? Airway protection * ? Maintenance of patent airway * ? Pulmonary toilet * ? Application of positive pressure * ? Maintenance of adequate oxygenation * Oral endotracheal tube size guideline During Laryngoscopy ; Intubation * ? Malposition * – Esophageal Intubation * – Bronchial Intubation * ? Trauma * – Tooth damage * – Lip, tongue, mucosal laceration * – Dislocated mandible * – Retropharyngeal dissection * – Cervical spine * ? Aspiration * C. 2 Managing Patients on Ventilators Clinical Nursing Skills * By Sandra F. Smith * Managing Patients on Ventilators * Preparation: * Double check the ventilator settings against those ordered by the physician. * Plug the machine and turn it on. * Familiarize yourself with location of alarm system Connect the ventilator tubing to patient’s endotracheal tube or traheostomy tube * Procedure: * Monitor pt VS every 5 minutes until stable * Obt ain ABG 15 minutes after ventilation is established. * Monitor ventilation setting. * Check humidifier fluid level. * Records I and O and daily weight Positive pressure may cause positive water balance due to humidification of inspired air. * C. 3 Managing Patients on Ventilators * Suspend ventilator tubing from an IV hook or support it on a pillow to reduce traction on the endotrachael tube. Change ventilator tubing every 24 hours. * Check VS and auscultate lungs every hour. Rationale: Positive pressure ventilation may decrease venous return and cardiac output. * Observe and listen for possible cuff leaks around TT or ET. * Empty accumulated water on ventilator tubing. Disconnect tubing and stretch it to release water trapped into corrugated areas and drained to water basin DO NOT drain water back to humidifier. * Provide patient a method of communication. , such as magic slate. * Test nasogastric drainage pH every hour and administer antacid to maintain pH above 5. Test nasogastri c drainage and fecal matter daily for occult blood. * Assess lungs compliance * Implement methods of stress reduction. * Keep ventilators alarms on * C7 Fluid and electrolyte problems By Canthera Cancer Therapy Center * Fluid and electrolyte problems 1. Water retention * Water retention is simply the buildup of excess fluid in tissues. * Swelling of the feet, ankles and hands are generally the first sign of water retention. * But it can also affect other parts of the body such as the abdomen, chest cavity, face and neck. Possible causes include: * Certain medications (some chemotherapy drugs can cause water retention) * Heart, liver or kidney disease * Blockage of veins or lymph system * Fluid and electrolyte problems * Some symptoms to look for and report to your physician include: * Feelings of tightness in the arms or legs. * Difficulty fitting into clothing. * Rings, wristwatch or shoes fit tighter than usual. * Pitting of the lower legs and arms – when you press on your skin with your finger is there an indentation that remains for a few seconds. * A sense of heaviness or weakness in the arms or legs. Skin that feels stiff or taut. * Any redness, changes in skin temperature or pain in swollen areas can be a sign of infection and should be reported immediately. * Fluid and electrolyte problems * Things that you can do to help manage swelling are: * Do not stand for long periods of time. * When sitting or lying keep feet/legs elevated as much as possible. * Avoid tight clothing (including s ocks) * Do not cross your legs when sitting or lying. * Try to reduce your salt intake. Avoid foods that are high in salt content such as chips, tomato juice, cured meats, and canned soups. Weight yourself daily – a weight gain of 5 pounds or more in one week should be reported to the physician immediately. * If your physician has prescribed medications for your swelling take them exactly as prescribed. Do not reduce or increase the dose. * Treatment of fluid retention depends upon the underlying cause. Since some of the causes of water retention can be related to organ disease/damage and are potentially severe, it is important that you speak with your physician or nurse promptly if you are experiencing this problem. * Fluid and electrolyte problems 2 Electrolyte imbalance * Electrolyte imbalance could also be caused by * vomiting, * diarrhea, * sweating, * high fevers, * kidney disease, * medications unrelated to cancer therapy, * certain chemotherapy drugs such as Cisplatin and targeted therapies such as Erbitux. * Fluid and electrolyte problems * Because electrolytes regulate activity of nerves and muscles, their imbalance could lead to malfunctions in multiple organ systems. * It could cause : * muscle spasms, * weakness and twitching; * irregular heartbeat and blood pressure changes; * lethargy, * confusion, and neurological problems. * Severe electrolyte imbalance can result in death. Monitoring for electrolyte imbalance is a simple process and is accomplished through routine lab work. * Fluid and electrolyte problems * Treatment of electrolyte imbalance is based on identifying and treating the underlying problem causing the imbalance, * and actively correcting the imbalance itself. * Treatment may include intravenous replacement of fluids or electrolytes, dietary changes and/or oral replacement of a particular electrolyte. * Fluid and electrolyte problems * 3. Tumor lysis syndrome Tumor Lysis Syndrome is a serious and sometimes life-threatening c omplication of chemotherapy. * . It is caused by release of breakdown products from dying cancer cells and most frequently occurs in patients with leukemia or lymphoma that have a high tumor burden (large tumor). * Patients with pre-existing kidney disease are also at increased risk for this complication * Fluid and electrolyte problems * Symptoms of tumor lysis syndrome include: * Muscle weakness * Paralysis * Heart arrthymias * Seizures * Tetany * Changes in emotional stability * Decreased urine output Changes in electrolyte and uric acid levels. * Fluid and electrolyte problems * Treated prophylatically with hydration and medications which decrease uric acid levels like Allopurinol. * Treatment for tumor lysis is directed toward stabilizing electrolyte and uric acid levels. * Aggressive hydration with IV fluids and use of diuretics may be instituted. In some cases persons have undergone renal dialysis. * C8 NUTRITION BY Schumaker and Chernecky critical Care and Emergency Nursing * Energy expenditure during respiratory failure is high and is caused by the increased work of breathing. The goal of nutritional support is to provide the needed nutrients to maintain the patients current level of : * metabolism * energize the immune system * and maintain end-organ function. * NUTRITION BY Schumaker and Chernecky critical Care and Emergency Nursing * Enteral Gi feeding is the route of choice to provide the calories and nutrients needed and to assist in maintaining normal GI: function. * if the patient is unable to tolerate enteral feedings, then a parenteral (intravenous) route is necessary until the patient can tolerate enteral feedings. * Medical Management of the Client Receiving Parenteral nutrition by Joyce Black * Parenteral Nutrition (PN). PN is indicated to maintain nutritional status and prevent malnutrition when the client has inadequate intestinal function or cannot be fed orally or by . tube feeding. * The PN prescription is guided by the nutritional assessment and the definition of nutrient goals for calories. and protein. The PN solution contains carbohydrates' as glucose, fats, triglyceride, and protein as amino acid levels designed to meet the caloric and protein need of the client. * C 9 Perioperative Problems by Carl Balita, Nursing Review * D. Psychological and Behavioral Intervention * 1. Measure to relieve anxiety * 2. Fear * 3. Depression * 4. Critical concerns life: * a. Immobility * b. Sleep deprivation * c. Sensory overload * d. body image alteration * e. Grieving * f. sexuality * g. spirituality * Psychosocial and Behavioral Intervention http://www. uspharmd. com * Anxiety * Vague uneasy feeling of discomfort or dread accompanied by an autonomic response (the source often nonspecific or unknown to the individual); a feeling of apprehension caused by anticipation of danger. It is an alerting signal that warns of impending danger and enables the individual to take measures to deal with threat. * Anxiety * Defining Characteristics Nursing Diagnosis Anxiety * Expressed concerns due to change in life events; * insomnia * Fear of unspecific consequences * Shakiness * Anxiety * Nursing outcome Nursing Care Plans For Anxiety: * †¢ Appear relaxed and report anxiety is reduced to a manageable level. †¢ Verbalize awareness of feelings of anxiety. †¢ Identify healthy ways to deal with and express anxiety. †¢ Demonstrate problem-solving skills. Use resources/support systems effectively. * Nursing Priority Nursing Care Plans   For Anxiety †¢ Assess level of anxiety †¢ Assist client to identify feelings and begin to deal with problems †¢ Provide measures to comfort and aid client to handle problematic †¢ To promote wellness; teaching/discharge considerations * Fear * Fear is a feeling of anxiety and agitation caused by the pr esence or nearness of danger, evil, pain, etc. ; timidity; dread; terror; fright; apprehension respectful dread; awe; reverence a feeling of uneasiness or apprehension; concern: * Interventions. The client needs an explanation of the disease and all treatment options. * Reinforce information to the client as needed. * The client also needs information concerning operative procedures and postoperative interventions (NPO status, NG tubes, other drains, intravenous infusions). * This information helps decrease the clients fear. * Understanding Depression by Health Guide . org * Feeling down from time to time is a normal part of life. But when emptiness and despair take hold and wont go away, it may be depression. * Common signs and symptoms of depression : * Feelings of helplessness and hopelessness. A bleak outlook—nothing will ever get better and there’s nothing you can do to improve your situation. * Loss of interest in daily activities. No interest in former hobbies, pastimes, social activities, or sex. You’ve lost your ability to feel joy and pleasure. * Appetite or weight changes. Significant weight loss or weight gain—a change of more than 5% of body weight in a month. * Sleep changes. Either insomnia, especially waking in the early hours of the morning, or oversleeping (also known as hypersomnia). * Common signs and symptoms of depression : * Irritability or restlessness. Feeling agitated, restless, or on edge. Your tolerance level is low; everything and everyone gets on your nerves. * Loss of energy. Feeling fatigued, sluggish, and physically drained. Your whole body may feel heavy, and even small tasks are exhausting or take longer to complete. * Self-loathing. Strong feelings of worthlessness or guilt. You harshly criticize yourself for perceived faults and mistakes. * Concentration problems. Trouble focusing, making decisions, or remembering things. * Unexplained aches and pains. An increase in physical complaints such as headaches, back pain, aching muscles, and stomach pain. Depression * Depression is a major risk factor for suicide. The deep despair and hopelessness that goes along with depression can make suicide feel like the only way to escape the pain. * Thoughts of death or suicide are a serious symptom of depression, so take any suicidal talk or behavior seriously * Depression * Intervention: * Lifestyle changes are not always easy to mak e, but they can have a big impact on depression. * Lifestyle changes that can be very effective include: * Cultivating supportive relationships * Getting regular exercise and sleep * Eating healthfully to naturally boost mood Managing stress * Practicing relaxation techniques * Challenging negative thought patterns * Critical Concerns life: * Immobility * Sleep Deprivation * Sensory overload * Body image deprivation * Grieving * Sexuality * Spirituality * Immobility * Immobility is complications that are associated with a limited or absolute lack of movement by the patient; various members of the health care team may collaborate to assist the patient in avoiding these problems. * Nurses must -Prevent the complications of immobility, such as :pneumonia , pressure ulcers, with frequent turning or the use of an oscillating bed. Intervention: * Continue to reposition the patient to relieve skin pressure unless the bed provides more, than 40 degrees of rotation. * The eyes may need to be taped closed to avoid corneal abrasion. * Suctioning may be needed to keep the airway clear and prevent pneumonia. * Passive range-of-motion exercises keep joints mobile and minimize muscle wasting. * Position the extremities in correct alignment to prevent contractures. * Use sequential compression stockings to prevent deep venous thrombosis (DVT); low-dose heparin may also be ordered. All these complications are continually assessed for and are treated promptly if they occur. * Sleep Deprivation Sensory overload * Sleep Deprivation is a sufficient lack of restorative sleep over a cumulative period so as to cause physical or psychiatric symptoms and affect routine performances of tasks. * Sensory overload is a condition in which an individual receives an excessive or intolerable amount of sensory stimuli, as in a busy hospital or clinic or an intensive care unit. * Sleep Deprivation Sensory overload * Sleep deprivation is of particular concern for clients in critical care units. Causes of the following: * The noise level * 24-hour lighting * and frequency of caregiver interruptions create sensory overload and sleep deprivation, which is thought to be a major factor contributing to postoperative psychosis (Joyce Black) * Sleep Deprivation * Causes: * Clients who have had surgery are also at risk for sleep pattern disturbance because of disruptions in circadian rhythms. * The cause is unclear, but the disruptions may be related to the length and type of anesthesia, postoperative analgesia, or mechanisms associated with the procedure itself. * Sleep Deprivation Techniques used to promote sleep include : * massage * relaxing music * progressive relaxation techniques * Medications to promote sleep * Body image deprivation * Body image is the attitude a person has about the actual or perceived structure or function of all or part of his or her body. * This attitude is dynamic and is altered through interaction with other persons and situations and influenced by a ge and developmental level. * As an important part of one’s self-concept, body image disturbance can have profound impact on how individuals view their overall selves. * Body image deprivation In cultures where one’s appearance is important, variations from the norm can result in body image disturbance. * The importance that an individual places on a body part or function may be more important in determining the degree of disturbance than the actual alteration in the structure or function. * Therefore the loss of a limb may result in a greater body image disturbance for an athlete than for a computer programmer. * Body image deprivation * The loss of a breast to a fashion model or a hysterectomy in a nulliparous woman may cause serious body image disturbances even though the overall health of the individual has been improved. Removal of skin lesions, altered elimination resulting from bowel or bladder surgery, and head and neck resections are other examples that can le ad to body image disturbance. * Body image deprivation * Defining Characteristics: Verbalization about altered structure or function of a body part * Verbal preoccupation with changed body part or function * Naming changed body part or function * Refusal to discuss or acknowledge change * Focusing behavior on changed body part and/or function * Actual change in structure or function * Refusal to look at, touch, or care for altered body part * Change in social behavior (e. . , withdrawal, isolation, flamboyance) * Compensatory use of concealing clothing or other devices * Body image deprivation * Therapeutic Interventions * Acknowledge normalcy of emotional response to actual or perceived change in body structure or function. Stages of grief over loss of a body part or function is normal, and typically involves a period of denial, the length of which varies from individual to individual. * Help patient identify actual changes. Patients may perceive changes that are not present or rea l, or they may be placing unrealistic value on a body structure or function. Encourage verbalization of positive or negative feelings about actual or perceived change. It is worthwhile to encourage the patient to separate feelings about changes in body structure and/or function from feelings about self-worth. * Body image deprivation * Therapeutic Interventions * * Assist patient in incorporating actual changes into ADLs, social life, interpersonal relationships, and occupational activities. Opportunities for positive feedback and success in social situations may hasten adaptation. * Demonstrate positive caring in routine activities. Professional caregivers represent a microcosm of society, and their actions and behaviors are scrutinized as the patient plans to return to home, to work, and to other activities. * Body image deprivation * Education/Continuity of Care * Teach patient about the normalcy of body image disturbance and the grief process. * Teach patient adaptive behavior (e. g. , use of adaptive equipment, wigs, cosmetics, clothing that conceals altered body part or enhances remaining part or function, use of deodorants). This compensates for actual changed body structure and function. Help patient identify ways of coping that have been useful in the past. Asking patients to remember other body image issues (e. g. , getting glasses, wearing orthodontics, being pregnant, having a leg cast) and how they were managed may help patient adjust to the current issue. * Body image deprivation * Education/Continuity of Care * * Refer patient and caregivers to support groups composed of individuals with similar al terations. Lay persons in similar situations offer a different type of support, which is perceived as helpful (e. g. , United Ostomy Association, Y Me? , I Can Cope, Mended Hearts). http://nursingcareplan. blogspot. com * Grieving by Carl Balita * Sexuality * Sexuality. Sexuality is the behavioral expression of ones sexual identity. * It involves sexual relationships between people as well as the perception of ones maleness or femaleness (gender identification). * Sexuality * Many aspects of sexuality affect health status and are significant to nursing care and client outcomes. * * Aspects include: * (1) physical health problems that affect sexual behavior * (mastectomy, colostomy, skin lesions, venereal diseases, paralysis, physical deformities) * (2) concerns with sexual performance (impotence, premature ejaculation, inability to achieve orgasm, infertility), * (3) issues of sex role function * (homosexuality, bisexuality, sexual ambiguity, transsexual surgery), and * (4) effects of environmental restrictions on sexual performance * (residency in a longterm care facility). * Sexuality * Sexuality and sexual behavior are sensitive topics. * Clients may want to discuss sexuality issues and may look for permission to do so. * Become comfortable with sexuality issues and do not allow personal beliefs and values to interfere with professional care. Accept and interact with clients without judging them or their behavior. * Spirituality * Spiritual beliefs have implications for well-being, such as sustaining hope or assisting with coping during periods of stress. * Include spirituality assessment as part of the, health history and explain the purpose for asking about it * Spirituality * . This portion of the history is usually addressed at the end of the interview after a trusting nurse-client relationship is established. * Because spirituality is personal, respect a clients wishes not to discuss this topic. Ask whether the client prefers to consult someone else wh en spiritual support is needed. * Spirituality * Nurses may be aware that patients have spiritual needs, but in many cases are unable to respond to these needs. * This may result from an inadequacy in nurse education that does not prepare nurses to provide spiritual care. (Michelle Wensley, 2011) * Supportive Management * Supportive Management * (Discussed already on MODS = Medical and Nursing Management on the previous slides) * Preventing Complications * Preventing ICU Complications * Lee-lynn Chen, MD * Assistant Clinical Professor Catheter Related Blood Stream Infection * CRBSI Prevention Bundle : * Hand hygiene * Maximal barrier precautions (mask, gown, gloves and full barrier drapes) and full barrier drapes) * Chlorhexidine skin antisepsis * Optimal catheter site selection, with subclavian vein as the preferred site for non non-tunneled tunneled catheters in adults * Ultrasound guidance * Daily review of line necessity with prompt removal of unnecessary lines * Ventilator Asso ciated Pneumonia * A leading cause of death among hospital acquired infections * Increased length of time on ventilator, in both the ICU and hospital. Estimated cost is $40,000 (2004) * Continuous Aspiration of Subglottic Secretions * Requires intubation with special tube * Separate dorsal lumen that opens in to subglottic area * Aspiration may be continuous or intermittent * Requires frequent monitoring * Pressure Ulcers * Incidence and Cost * Incidence ranging from 0. 4% to 38% * 2. 5 million patients treated annually in US acute care facilities for pressure ulcers related complications * Once pressure ulcer develops, mortality is increased by 2-6 fold with 60,000 deaths * Total annual cost $11 billion * Pressure Ulcers Definition: Localized injury to the skin and/or underlying tissue usually over a bony prominence, as a result of pressure or in combination with shear or friction. * Identifying patients at risk and identifying early skin changes can allow early intervention to pr event a pressure ulcer from developing * Pressure Ulcers: Sites * Sacrum -most common site (30%)Slouching in bed or chair * Higher risk in incontinent pts * Heels-2ndmost common (20%)Immobile or numb legs * Higher risk with PVD diabetes neuropathy * Trochanter * Device related * Minimize pressure * Frequent small position changes (every 1. to 4 hrs) * Keep reclining chair and bed below 30 degree angle to decrease pressure load * Sitting: may need hourly position changes * Increase mobility/Consult PT/OT * Order air mattress if turning protocols are ineffective * Reposition off of any know ulcers * Use pillows to pad bony prominences * Float heels with pillow lengthwise under calves * Minimize friction and shear * Use draw sheet under patient to assist with moving * Do not drag over mattress when lifting up in bed * Avoid mechanical injury-use slide boards, turn sheet, trapeze, corn starch * Manage Moisture Cleanse skin at time of soiling and use absorbent * Provide a non-irritating surface * Barrier ointments and pads * Utilize appropriate fecal/urinary collection devices * Nutrition/hydration * Skin condition reflects overall body function * Skin breakdown may be evidence of general catabolic state * Increase hydration caloric needs * Nutritional goals: ^protein intake1. 2-1. 5 gm/kg body weight daily—unless contraindicated * Consider vitamin supplementation * Rehabilitation * Rehabilitation will be properly coordinated with the Physical Therapy Department

Birth Order and Effects on Personlality essays

Birth Order and Effects on Personlality essays Birth Order and the Effects on Personality The psychological effects on personality resulting from birth order have been studied for over a century and psychologists have recorded many fascinating results. First borns are reported to be more responsible and achievement oriented then later-borns, who are in turn reported to be more socially successful than their older siblings (Sulloway p. 55). First borns deal with pressure from their parents to be the exceptionally better at everything. Brand-new parents tend to be a paradox when it comes to their first born child. One side of them is overprotective, anxious, tentative, and inconsistent. The other side can be strict in discipline, demanding, always pushing and encouraging more and better performance (Leman p. 62). Personality although not completely dependent on birth order relies heavily on which order one was born in. Birth order effects are a result of a competition among siblings as they Alfred Alder worked extensively with the effects of birth order on personality. He said that the firstborn child was dethroned by the birth of the latter child. As Alder reasoned Sometimes a child who has lost his power, the small kingdom he ruled, understands better than others the importance of power and authority (Sulloway p. 55.). It is natural for firstborns to identify more strongly with power and authority. They arrive first within the family and employ their superior size and strength to defend their special status (Sulloway p. 19). Alder felt that firstborns develop a striving to imitate their parents, to feel responsible for their siblings, and to protect others. They are often serious and dont like surprises. They thrive on control, being on time and organized. First borns automatically fit into the category labeled advanced&qu...

Management accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Management accounting - Essay Example But, desirability and effectiveness of accounting for organization control is a critical issue because accounting procedures consists of few integrative devices of organizations where business activities are not only drawn together by values but those are integrated in a quantitative manner. So, accounting is most efficient tool of organizational control system where standard qualitative procedures are followed to evaluate qualitative performance of the organizations for management control over the organizations. These facilitates other external stakeholders of the organizations like investors, creditors etc. for their valuable financial decision making which are highly depends on actual performance of the organizations. So, this study analyzes the effectiveness or relevance, desirability, faithfulness or reliability of accounting information for management control over organizations. Introduction Organizations show stable and consistent types of behaviour in interaction with the bus iness environment which is consistently changing. They have wide range of external influences from external business environment but have enough capability to change internally to protect their integrity. This stability and flexibility of organizational internal behaviour and control possess through effective and integrative control mechanism. One of the most important control mechanisms of organizational is internal accounting system. This consists of integrative process of accounting for implementation of accounting information in management control. So, management accounting systems has major importance in organizations as it consists of some integrative mechanisms that are capable for summarizing the qualitative effect of organizational actions or activities in quantitative values. This study review the major functions of accounting information that helps the management in the area of integrative process of organizational control. Efficient accounting provides integrative langua ge for analysing the impact of diverse internal and external influences on organizations that have substantial positive or negative impact on organizational performance. Nature of organizational control with respect to implication accounting information is qualitatively reviewed in this paper to assess the necessary conditions for control. These conditions are derived and applied in management control. Main objective of accounting policy is to produce fair valued accounting information that is highly reliable and relevant to the purpose and objectives of financials statement (WBS, 2012). The extent of desirability and effectiveness of accounting information are analysed with respect to management control and strategic decision making process. Further, scope of faithful or reliable accounting information on organizational control by management is also analysed. Again, measurement process of organizational performance both quantitative and qualitative is analysed with reference to the implication of relevant and reliable accounting information in organizational performance measurement and essential internal reconstruction with respect to change in external business environment. Desirability and Effectiveness of accounting information for organizational control There are two broad purpose of accounting information, external and internal. External purpose includes the investment decision making by the shareholders and potential new investors of an organization, credit

Philosophy of Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Philosophy of Education - Essay Example I believe that Education is the key to success and it is through education that a person receives the fundamental skills and tools that are important in building a life that is successful and prosperous. The quality of education in a country will determine the level of its success and prosperity. Therefore, as a teacher I believe that it is important for every child to receive quality education. Although quality in education is something that cannot be achieved by the teachers only, I believe teachers play a major role in improving the education quality of a country. To improve the quality of education, teachers, parents and all stakeholders in education must work together. Quality in education includes the health and participation of learners, support from family and community, availability of good learning environment, content that is relevant in real life situations and teacher’s organization and proficiency. As a teacher, I believe that everyone has the ability to learn. However, for effective mastering of concepts and skills, a student must show interest in learning and willingness to participate in the learning activities. My work as a teacher is to provide good learning environment in the classroom and improve the quality of education. The arrangement or organization of the classroom can improve or inhibit learning depending on the learning patterns of each child. Therefore, by accommodating the students’ different patterns of learning, the teacher creates an environment that is conducive for learning. Although education has always been associated with economic growth, I believe that with better quality education the economic retu rns can be much higher. It is also evident that increased investment in education increases political stability, democratization, improves the health of the people and reduces poverty and inequality. Thus, I am strongly convinced that it is the role of teachers to ensure that the education provided in schools is of good quality so as to realize the maximum benefits of quality education. Young minds are very critical and delicate, and teaching them is challenging and frustrating. Any indication by the teacher that he or she is not interested in a particular subject or area of study and lacks passion for learning will make the children to lose interest in the same. A teacher must convince the children of his or her knowledge and expertise for them to be willing to learn and show interest in learning. My job, as a teacher is to develop an environment that promotes learning. I am a teacher and an instructor because I posses the passion for guiding children through the process of learnin g and one of the best ways of fostering learning is to show the children these feelings I hold over education. I promote learning by providing a relaxed atmosphere for children, stimulating conversations on presented ideas and organizing ideas in an easy way that can be understood by the learners. I believe subject matter are interconnected thus I emphasize that everything that people learn form a world of understanding from which they develop their personal views. I also believe that showing respect to my students is important because it encourages them to be open and inspires them to respect each other and all other people. My method of teaching is that which acknowledges diversity in teaching methodologies and techniques. I believe that hands on and minds on learning are important because supplementing curriculum with other activities promotes the learning process. I am certain that by involving the learners in fascinating lessons and making use of strategies which address their learning styles, they can achieve success in academics and have self confidence in the learning process. Learning only takes place when the children are fully engaged in the learning process, are personally connected to the concept taught and use the knowledge acquired in real life situations. Therefore, when this happens a child is encouraged to be engaged over and

The Women Of Beowulf

The Women Of Beowulf An epic tale of heroes and monsters, the story of Beowulf is filled with excitement and adventure, However Beowulfs importance goes far beyond that of just an excellent literary piece. It also offers many insights into the world of the seventh-century Anglo-Saxon culture. One of the things that is very prevalent in Beowulf is how women are portrayed and expected to act in this society. Anglo-Saxon women that are peaceful and unassertive are considered to be following their roles in society, by greeting guests and serving mead to the men in the mead hall. One such example of the Anglo-Saxon women following this role is Welthow, the queen of the Danes. Women are also portrayed on the opposite end of the spectrum; a perfect example of this would be Grendels mother. She is a strong and fierce monster whom Beowulf must kill. By reading about these two women in Beowulf, we can understand the different ways women are portrayed in this society. Throughout the story of Beowulf, the author sub tly supports the traditional Anglo-Saxon views of women by praising the actions of Welthow, condemning Grendels mother, and showing the need to stop feminine forces like Wyrd; however, the author also contradicts these views on a few rare occasions by sympathizing with Grendels mother, allowing Welthow to assert herself in support of her family. In the story of Beowulf, Welthow is by far the one that one would think of when they picture a typical Anglo-Saxon women in these times. The instance that best demonstrates this is after they all return to Hrothgar. Then Welthow, Hrothgars gold-ringed queen, greeted the warriors a noble woman who knew what was right, she raised a flowing cup to Hrothgar first, holding it high for the lord of the Danes to drink, wishing him joy in the feast. She thanked god for answering her prayers, for allowing her hands the happy duty of offering mead to the heros. (Raffel 28-29) This passage gives a detailed example of what is expected of women in these times. Even on into later years, Women were still expected and encouraged to serve drinks. The wife grew the grapes, harvested the grapes, made the wine, and sold the wine(Collins 26). Even though she is operating as a typical Anglo-Saxon woman she is still a queen. This is evident in her role from that of a traditional Anglo-Saxon woman to a peace maker when she gives a toast in the meadhall Celebrate his courage, rejoice and be generous while a kingdom sits in your palm, a people and power that death will stealà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. I know your nephews kindness; I know hell replay in kind the goodness you have shown him. (Raffel 51-52) With everyone gathered for the toast, Hrothulf would have second thoughts about betraying his family and taking the throne. In another similar way, in the poem Les Voeux de Paon, a family is quarreling and with the help of a young woman peacemaker, they put down their disagreements, Elyses, a young woman, goes to each knight asking for them to vow to discharge their obligations to arms(Murphy 6) She continues to gently persuade each of them until they all give in to laying down their weapons. However, on the other end of the spectrum we have Grendels mother. Grendels mother defies the traditional role of an Anglo-Saxon woman by being powerful and aggressive. The main difference between Welthow and Grendels mother is that Welthows influence is much more subtle and nonviolent than that of Grendels mother. Being a monster, Grendels mother possesses great warrior-strength (Raffel 57). Grendels mother attacks Herot. Shed taken Hrothgars closest friend, The man he most loved of all men on earth, The wise old kind, trembled in anger and grief, his dearest friend and adviser dead (Raffel 57). The next morning, Beowulf follows her tracks back to her underwater lair. Beowulf goes into her underwater lair and they fight. However Beowulf did not consider the enormous strength she would have. In order to defeat Grendel, Beowulf grabs one of his arms and rips off; on the other hand, Grendels mother fights with Beowulf and almost defeats him. Beowulf only wins the fight because of divine intervention, The ruler of the world, showed me, hanging shining and beautiful on a wall, a mighty old sword (Raffel 71) When later recounting his battle with Grendels mother, he says she fought with such strength that would surpass any man. Despite Beowulf being the hero and Grendels mother being portrayed as a monster, he creates sympathy for Grendels mother by accepting her motive for vengeance and suggesting a close mother-son bond. When Grendels mother is first introduced, she is depicted as a mother mourning her son and out for vengeance. It shows some reason for her attack instead of just being evil. The author continues to build sympathy for Grendels mother by presenting her as having a clear emotional bond with her son. After her attack on Herot, Grendels mother takes the arm of her slain son. Further evidence of the strong emotional attachment between the two is the fact that Beowulf finds Grendels dead body in his mothers underwater lair. The last we hear of Grendel, he is fleeing from Herot with a mortal wound. One can only assume that Grendels mother was mourning the death of her son and unable to let him go. The continued reinforcement of appropriate female roles by presenting two separate and opposing supernatural forces that strongly influence the plot of Beowulf: a masculine God and a feminine Wyrd, suggesting that feminine forces require suppression. Wyrd is a mysterious force that acts as a fate, bringing the heroes of Beowulf ever closer to agony and death; however, God protects Beowulf and helps him in battle. Wyrd works to bring disorder and doom to Beowulf, just as Grendels mother wages war on Hrothgar and his kingdom. Beowulf is able to kill Grendels mother, ending her influence, however he is unable to do anything about the Wyrd except to look to God for help. The story of Beowulf helps paint a picture of what it must have been like to be an Anglo-Saxon woman in those times. The woman who followed the traditional roles are considered good and those who dont are cast out as monsters. Raffel, Burton. Beowulf. 2nd ed. London: Signet Classic, 2008. Print. Collins, James. French Historical Studies. French Historical Studies. 16.2 Print. Murphy, Michael. English Studies. English Studies. 66.2 105. Print.

I’m Not an Imitation of Someone Else, I’m Latina :: Personal Narrative Writing

I’m Not an Imitation of Someone Else, I’m Latina As I sat at the kitchen table on those chilly winter evenings in Kenner, Louisiana, I could feel my mother staring at me from where she was. I was busy doing my homework, and she was preparing that night's supper. She would always start off by asking me what I was doing and the only thing I would ever answer was, "Oh, nothing. Just homework." Then I would turn away and sort of look in the other direction as if to tell her to leave me alone, because I had a lot to do. At the time I was only eight years old, in my second complete year of schooling in the United States. I had already fully grasped the English language, and it had been a year and a half since I had been removed from the bilingual program. In actuality, I had become Americanized quiet easily. Although this was a process that involvedgive and take, because although I did adapt to my new environment very well, I never let go of what I had already learned in my previous environment. I can recall that at the same time that I was learning to read and write in English, I was also learning to do so in my native tongue, Spanish. In school, as I sat in the small wooden house, which was the bilingual classroom, I could clearly remember wondering why it was that "Spot" was so important. For more than a month we had been learning about this brown dog and about seeing him run. This experience was very strange for me, not only because it was in a totally new language but because I never did really see spot run. I only saw him painted on an oversized illustrated notebook. After a long and confusing day at school, I would come home to do my assignments; alone. It wasn't that my mother did not want to help me, but she couldn't. She knew little about the assignment , and knew even less about the language. At first I didn't mind. The assignments were easy for me to figure out, and if it was really hard I would just tell the teacher the next day that I couldn't figure it out. Sh e would ask me why I didn't ask my mother for help, and I would have to respond to her, "because she didn't know either.

New Hoarding Technique for Handling Disconnection in Mobile

Literature Survey On New Hoarding Technique for Handling Disconnection in Mobile Submitted by Mayur Rajesh Bajaj (IWC2011021) In Partial fulfilment for the award of the degree Of Master of Technology In INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (Specialization: Wireless Communication and Computing) [pic] Under the Guidance of Dr. Manish Kumar INDIAN INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, ALLAHABAD (A University Established under sec. 3 of UGC Act, 1956 vide Notification no. F. 9-4/99-U. 3 Dated 04. 08. 2000 of the Govt. of India) (A Centre of Excellence in Information Technology Established by Govt. of India) Table of Contents [pic] 1.Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 3 2. Related Work and Motivation 1. Coda: The Pioneering System for Hoarding†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 2. Hoarding Based on Data Mining Techniques†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 5 3. Hoarding Techniques Based on Program Trees†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 8 4. Hoarding in a Distributed Environment†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 9 5.Hoarding content for mobile learning†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 10 6. Mobile Clients Through Cooperative Hoarding†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 10 7. Comparative Discussion previous techniques†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 11 3. Problem Definition†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 11 4. New Approach Suggested 1. Zipf’s Law †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2 2. Object Hotspot Prediction Model†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 13 5. Schedule of Work†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 13 6. Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 13 References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 14 . Introduction Mobile devices are the computers which are having wireless communication capabilities to access global data services from any location while roaming. Now a day’s mobile devices are supporting applications such as multimedia, World Wide Web and other high profile applications which demands continuous connections and Mobile devices are lacking here. However, mobile devices with wireless communication are frequently disconnected from the network due to the cost of wireless communication or the unavailability of the wireless network.Disconnection period of mobile device from its network is called as offline period. Such offline periods may appear for different reasons – intentional (e. g. , the available connection is too expensive for the user) or unintentional (e. g. , lack of infrastructure at a given time and location). During offline periods the user can only access materials located on the device’s local memory. Mobile systems typically have a relatively small amount of memory, which is often not enough to store all the needed data for ongoing activities to continue.In such a case, a decision should be taken on which part of the data has to be cached. Often we cannot count on the user’s own judgement of what he/she will need and prefetch. Rather, in our opinion, some sort of automatic prefetching would be desirable. Uninterrupted operation in offline mode will be in high demand and the mobile computer systems should provide support for it. Seamless disconnection can be achieved by loading the files that a user will access in the future from the network to the local storage. This preparation process for disconnected operation is called hoarding.Few of the parameters which complicate the hoarding process are prediction of future access pattern of the user, handling of hoard miss, limited local hoard memory and unpredictable disconnections and reconnection, activities on hoarded object at other clients, the asymmetry of communications bandwidth in downstream and upstream. An important point is to measure the quality of the hoarding and to try to improve it continuously. An often used metric in the evaluation of caching proxies is the hit ratio. Hit ratio is calculated by dividing the number of by the total number of uploaded predictions.It is a good measure for hoarding systems, though a better measure is the miss ratio – a percentage of accesses for which the cache is ineffective. In this work we have given brief overview of the techniques proposed in earlier days and also given the idea for the new hoarding technique. 2. Related Work and Motivation Before the early 1990’s, there was little research on hoarding. Since then, however, interest has increased dramatically among research scientists and professors around the globe and many techniques have been developed. Here we have listed few of the techniques and also will discuss them in brief. Coda: The Pioneering System for Hoarding †¢ Hoarding Based on Data Mining Techniques ? SEER Hoarding System (inspired by clustering technique) ? Association Rule-Based Techniques ? Hoarding Based on Hyper Graph ? Probability Graph Based Technique †¢ Hoarding Techniques Based on Program Trees †¢ Hoarding in a Distributed Environment †¢ Hoarding content for mobile learning †¢ Mobile Clients Through Cooperative Hoarding 2. 1 Coda Coda is a distributed file system based on client–server architecture, where there are many clients and a comparatively smaller number of servers.It is the first system that enabled users to work in disconnected mode. The concept of hoarding was introduced by the Coda group as a means of enabling disconnected operation. Disconnections in Coda are assumed to occur involuntarily due to network failures or voluntarily due to the detachment of a mobile client from the network. Voluntary and involuntary disconnections are handled the same way. The cache manager of Coda, called Venus, is designed to work in disconnected mode by serving client requests from the cache when the mobile client is detached from the network.Requests to the files that are not in the cache during disconnection are reflected to the client as failures. The hoarding system of Coda lets users select the files that they will hopefully need in the future. This information is used to decide what to load to the local storage. For disconnected operation, files are loaded to the client local storage, because the master copies are kept at stationary servers, there is the notion of replication and how to manage locks on the local copies. When the disconnection is voluntary, Coda handles this case by obtaining exclusive locks to files.However in case of involuntary disconnection, the system should defer the conflicting lock requests for an object to the reconnection time, which may not be predictable. The cache management system of Coda, called Venus, diff ers from the previous ones in that it incorporates user profiles in addition to the recent reference history. Each workstation maintains a list of pathnames, called the hoard database. These pathnames specify objects of interest to the user at the workstation that maintains the hoard database. Users can modify the hoard database via scripts, which are called hoard profiles.Multiple hoard profiles can be defined by the same user and a combination of these profiles can be used to modify the hoard database. Venus provides the user with an option to specify two time points during which all file references will be recorded. Due to the limitations of the mobile cache space, users can also specify priorities to provide the hoarding system with hints about the importance of file objects. Precedence is given to high priority objects during hoarding where the priority of an object is a combination of the user specified priority and a parameter indicating how recently it was accessed.Venus per forms a hierarchical cache management, which means that a directory is not purged unless all the subdirectories are already purged. In summary, the Coda hoarding mechanism is based on a least recently used (LRU) policy plus the user specified profiles to update the hoard data-base, which is used for cache management. It relies on user intervention to determine what to hoard in addition to the objects already maintained by the cache management system. In that respect, it can be classified as semi-automated.Researchers developed more advanced techniques with the aim of minimizing the user intervention in determining the set of objects to be hoarded. These techniques will be discussed in the following sections. 2. 2 Hoarding based on Data mining Techniques Knowing the interested pattern from the large collection of data is the basis of data mining. In the earlier history of hoarding related works researchers have applied many different data mining techniques in this arena of mobile hoa rding. Mainly clustering and association rule mining techniques were adopted from data mining domain. . 2. 1 SEER Hoarding System To automate the hoarding process, author developed a hoarding system called SEER that can make hoarding decisions without user intervention. The basic idea in SEER is to organize users’ activities as projects in order to provide more accurate hoarding decisions. A distance measure needs to be defined in order to apply clustering algorithms to group related files. SEER uses the notion of semantic distance based on the file reference behaviour of the files for which semantic distance needs to be calculated.Once the semantic distance between pairs of files are calculated, a standard clustering algorithm is used to partition the files into clusters. The developers of SEER also employ some filters based on the file type and other conventions introduced by the specific file system they assumed. The basic architecture of the SEER predictive hoarding syste m is provided in figure 1. The observer monitors user behaviour (i. e. , which files are accessed at what time) and feeds the cleaned and formatted access paths to the correlator, which then generates the distances among files in terms of user access behaviour.The distances are called the semantic distance and they are fed to the cluster generator that groups the objects with respect to their distances. The aim of clustering is, given a set of objects and a similarity or distance matrix that describes the pairwise distances or similarities among a set of objects, to group the objects that are close to each other or similar to each other. Calculation of the distances between files is done by looking at the high-level file references, such as open or status inquiry, as opposed to individual reads and writes, which are claimed to obscure the process of distance calculation. pic] Figure 1. Architecture of the SEER Predictive Hoarding System The semantic distance between two file referen ces is based on the number of intervening references to other files in between these two file references. This definition is further enhanced by the notion of lifetime semantic distance. Lifetime semantic distance between an open file A and an open file B is the number of intervening file opens (including the open of B). If the file A is closed before B is opened, then the distance is defined to be zero.The lifetime semantic distance relates two references to different files; however it needs to be somehow converted to a distance measure between two files instead of file references. Geometric mean of the file references is calculated to obtain the distance between the two files. Keeping all pairwise distances takes a lot of space. Therefore, only the distances among the closest files are represented (closest is determined by a parameter K, K closest pairs for each file are considered). The developers of SEER used a variation of an agglomerative (i. e. bottom up) clustering algorithm called k nearest neighbour, which has a low time and space complexity. An agglomerative clustering algorithm first considers individual objects as clusters and tries to combine them to form larger clusters until all the objects are grouped into one single cluster. The algorithm they used is based on merging sub clusters into larger clusters if they share at least kn neighbours. If the two files share less than kn close files but more than kf, then the files in the clusters are replicated to form overlapping clusters instead of being merged.SEER works on top of a user level replication system such as Coda and leaves the hoarding process to the underlying file system after providing the hoard database. The files that are in the same project as the file that is currently in use are included to the set of files to be hoarded. During disconnected operation, hoard misses are calculated to give a feedback to the system. 2. 2. 2 Association Rule-Based Techniques Association rule overview: Let I=i1,i2†¦.. im be a set of literals, called items and D be a set of transactions, such that ?T ? D; T? I. A transaction T contains a set of items X if X? T. An association rule is denoted by an implication of the form X ? Y, where X? I, Y ? I, and X ? Y = NULL. A rule X ? Y is said to hold in the transaction set D with confidence c if c% of the transactions in D that contain X also contain Y. The rule X? Y has support sin the transaction set D if s% of transactions in D contains X? Y. The problem of mining association rules is to find all the association rules that have a support and a confidence greater than user-specified thresholds.The thresholds for confidence and support are called minconf and minsup respectively. In Association Rule Based Technique for hoarding, authors described an application independent and generic technique for determining what should be hoarded prior to disconnection. This method utilizes association rules that are extracted by data mining techni ques for determining the set of items that should be hoarded to a mobile computer prior to disconnection. The proposed method was implemented and tested on synthetic data to estimate its effectiveness.The process of automated hoarding via association rules can be summarized as follows: Step 1: Requests of the client in the current session are used through an inferencing mechanism to construct the candidate set prior to disconnection. Step 2: Candidate set is pruned to form the hoard set. Step 3: Hoard set is loaded to the client cache. The need to have separate steps for constructing the candidate set and the hoard set arises from the fact that users also move from one machine to another that may have lower resources.The construction of the hoard set must adapt to such potential changes. Construction of candidate set: An inferencing mechanism is used to construct the candidate set of data items that are of interest to the client to be disconnected. The candidate set of the client is constructed in two steps; 1. The inferencing mechanism finds the association rules whose heads (i. e. , left hand side) match with the client’s requests in the current session, 2. The tails (i. e. , right hand side) of the matching rules are collected into the candidate set.Construction of Hoard set: The client that issued the hoard request has limited re-sources. The storage resource is of particular importance for hoarding since we have a limited space to load the candidate set. Therefore, the candidate set obtained in the first phase of the hoarding set should shrink to the hoard set so that it fits the client cache. Each data item in the candidate set is associated with a priority. These priorities together with various heuristics must be incorporated for determining the hoard set. The data items are used to sort the rules in descending order of priorities.The hoard set is constructed out of the data items with the highest priority in the candidate set just enough to fil l the cache. 3. Hoarding Based on Hyper Graph Hyper graph based approach presents a kind of low-cost automatic data hoarding technology based on rules and hyper graph model. It first uses data mining technology to extract sequence relevance rules of data from the broadcasting history, and then formulates hyper graph model, sorting the data into clusters through hyper graph partitioning methods and sorting them topologically.Finally, according to the data invalid window and the current visit record, data in corresponding clusters will be collected. Hyper graph model: Hyper graph model is defined as H = (V, E) where V={v1 ,v2 ,†¦ ,vn } is the vertices collection of hyper graph, and E={e1 ,e2 ,†¦ ,em } is super-edge collection of hyper graph (there supposed to be m super-edges in total). Hyper graph is an extension of graph, in which each super-edge can be connected with two or more vertices. Super-edge is the collection of a group of vertices in hyper graph, and superedge ei = {vi1, vi2, †¦ inj} in which vi1,vi2 ,†¦ ,vin ? V . In this model, vertices collection V corresponds to the history of broadcast data, in which each point corresponds to a broadcast data item, and each super-edge corresponds to a sequence model. Sequence model shows the orders of data items. A sequence model in size K can be expressed as p = . Use of hyper graph in hoarding are discussed in paper in details. 4. Probability Graph Based Technique This paper proposed a low-cost automated hoarding for mobile computing.Advantage of this approach is it does not explore application specific heuristics, such as the directory structure or file extension. The property of application independence makes this algorithm applicable to any predicative caching system to address data hoarding. The most distinguished feature of this algorithm is that it uses probability graph to represent data relationships and to update it at the same time when user’s request is processed. Before d isconnection, the cluster algorithm divides data into groups.Then, those groups with the highest priority are selected into hoard set until the cache is filled up. Analysis shows that the overhead of this algorithm is much lower than previous algorithms. Probability Graph: An important parameter used to construct probability graph is look-ahead period. It is a fixed number of file references that defines what it means for one file to be opened ‘soon’ after another. In other words, for a specific file reference, only references within the look-ahead period are considered related. In fact, look-ahead period is an approximate method to avoid traversing the whole trace.Unlike constructing probability graph from local file systems, in the context of mobile data access, data set is dynamically collected from remote data requests. Thus, we implemented a variation of algorithm used to construct probability graph, as illustrated in Figure 2. [pic] Figure 2. Constructing the prob ability graph The basic idea is simple: If a reference to data object A follows the reference to data object B within the look-ahead period, then the weight of directed arc from B to A is added by one. The look-ahead period affects absolute weight of arcs.Larger look-ahead period produces more arcs and larger weight. A ’s dependency to B is represented by the ratio of weight of arc from B to A divided by the total weight of arcs leaving B. Clustering: Before constructing the final hoard set, data objects are clustered into groups based on dependency among data objects. The main objective of the clustering phase is to guarantee closely related data objects are partitioned into the same group. In the successive selecting phase, data objects are selected into hoard set at the unit of group. This design provides more continuity in user operation when disconnected.Selecting Groups: The following four kinds of heuristic information are applicable for calculating priority for a grou p: †¢ Total access time of all data objects; †¢ Average access time of data objects; †¢ Access time of the start data object; †¢ Average access time per byte. 2. Hoarding Techniques Based on Program Trees A hoarding tool based on program execution trees was developed by author running under OS/2 operating system. Their method is based on analyzing program executions to construct a profile for each program depending on the files the program accesses.They proposed a solution to the hoarding problem in case of informed disconnections: the user tells the mobile computer that there is an imminent disconnection to fill the cache intelligently so that the files that will be used in the future are already there in the cache when needed. [pic] Figure 3. Sample program Tree This hoarding mechanism lets the user make the hoarding decision. They present the hoarding options to the user through a graphical user interface and working sets of applications are captured automatic ally. The working sets are detected by logging the user file accesses at the background.During hoarding, this log is analyzed and trees that represent the program executions are constructed. A node denotes a file and a link from a parent to one of its child nodes tells us that either the child is opened by the parent or it is executed by the parent. Roots of the trees are the initial processes. Program trees are constructed for each execution of a program, which captures multiple contexts of executions of the same program. This has the advantage that the whole context is captured from different execution times of the program.Finally, hoarding is performed by taking the union of all the execution trees of a running program. A sample program tree is provided in Figure 3. Due to the storage limitations of mobile computers, the number of trees that can be stored for a program is limited to 15 LRU program trees. Hoarding through program trees can be thought of as a generalization of a pr o-gram execution by looking at the past behaviour. The hoarding mechanism is enhanced by letting the user rule out the data files. Data files are automatically detected using three complementary heuristics: 1.Looking at the filename extensions and observing the filename conventions in OS/2, files can be distinguished as executable, batch files, or data files. 2. Directory inferencing is used as a spatial locality heuristic. The files that differ in the top level directory in their pathnames from the running program are assumed to be data files, but the programs in the same top level directory are assumed to be part of the same program. 3. Modification times of the files are used as the final heuristic to deter-mine the type of a file. Data files are assumed to be modified more recently and frequently than the executables.They devised a parametric model for evaluation, which is based on recency and frequency. 3. Hoarding in a Distributed Environment Another hoarding mechanism, which was presented for specific application in distributed system, assumes a specific architecture, such as infostations where mobile users are connected to the network via wireless local area networks (LANs) that offer a high bandwidth, which is a cheaper option compared to wireless wide area networks (WANs). The hoarding process is handed over to the infostations in that model and it is assumed that what the user wants to access is location-dependent.Hoarding is proposed to fill the gap between the capacity and cost trade-off between wireless WANS and wireless LANs. The infestations do the hoarding and when a request is not found in the infostation, then WAN will be used to get the data item. The hoarding decision is based on the user access patterns coupled with that user’s location information. Items frequently accessed by mobile users are recorded together with spatial information (i. e. , where they were accessed). A region is divided into hoarding areas and each infostation is responsible with one hoarding area. 4. Hoarding content for mobile learningHoarding in the learning context is the process for automatically choosing what part of the overall learning content should be prepared and made available for the next offline period of a learner equipped with a mobile device. We can split the hoarding process into few steps that we will discuss further in more details: 1. Predict the entry point of the current user for his/her next offline learning session. We call it the ‘starting point’. 2. Create a ‘candidate for caching’ set. This set should contain related documents (objects) that the user might access from the starting point we have selected. 3.Prune the set – the objects that probably will not be needed by the user should be excluded from the candidate set, thus making it smaller. This should be done based on user behaviour observations and domain knowledge. 4. Find the priority to all objects still in the hoarding set after pruning. Using all the knowledge available about the user and the current learning domain, every object left in the hoarding set should be assigned a priority value. The priority should mean how important the object is for the next user session and should be higher if we suppose that there is a higher probability that an object will be used sooner. . Sort the objects based on their priority, and produce an ordered list of objects. 6. Cache, starting from the beginning of the list (thus putting in the device cache those objects with higher priority) and continue with the ones with smaller weights until available memory is filled in. 5. Mobile Clients Through Cooperative Hoarding Recent research has shown that mobile users often move in groups. Cooperative hoarding takes advantage of the fact that even when disconnected from the network, clients may still be able to communicate with each other in ad-hoc mode.By performing hoarding cooperatively, clients can share their hoar d content during disconnections to achieve higher data accessibility and reduce the risk of critical cache misses. Two cooperative hoarding schemes, GGH and CAP, have been proposed. GGH improves hoard performance by al-lowing clients to take advantage of what their peers have hoarded when making their own hoarding decisions. On the other hand, CAP selects the best client in the group to Hoard each object to maximise the number of unique objects hoarded and minimise access cost. Simulation results show that compare to existing schemes.Details of GGH and CAP are given in paper. 2. 7 Comparative Discussion previous techniques The hoarding techniques discussed above vary depending on the target system and it is difficult to make an objective comparative evaluation of their effectiveness. We can classify the hoarding techniques as being auto-mated or not. In that respect, being the initial hoarding system, Coda is semiautomated and it needs human intervention for the hoarding decision. T he rest of the hoarding techniques discussed are fully automated; how-ever, user supervision is always desirable to give a final touch to the files to be hoarded.Among the automated hoarding techniques, SEER and program tree-based ones assume a specific operating system and use semantic information about the files, such as the naming conventions, or file reference types and so on to construct the hoard set. However, the ones based on association rule mining and infostation environment do not make any operating system specific assumptions. Therefore, they can be used in generic systems. Coda handles both voluntary and involuntary disconnections well.The infostation-based hoarding approach is also inherently designed for involuntary disconnections, because hoarding is done during the user passing in the range of the infostation area. However, the time of disconnection can be predicted with a certain error bound by considering the direction and the speed of the moving client predicting when the user will go out of range. The program tree-based methods are specifically designed for previously informed disconnections. The scenario assumed in the case of infostations is a distributed wire-less infrastructure, which makes it unique among the hoarding mechanisms.This case is especially important in today’s world where peer-to-peer systems are becoming more and more popular. 3. Problem Definition The New Technique that we have planned to design for hoarding will be used on Mobile Network. Goals that we have set are a. Finding a solution having optimal hit ratio in the hoard at local node. b. Technique should not have greater time complexity because we don’t have much time for performing hoarding operation after the knowledge of disconnection. c. Optimal utilization of hoard memory. d. Support for both intentional and unintentional disconnection. e.Proper handling of conflicts in hoarded objects upon reconnection. However, our priority will be for hit rati o than the other goals that we have set. We will take certain assumptions about for other issues if we find any scope of improvement in hit ratio. 4. New Approach 4. 1 Zipf’s Law It is a mathematical tool to describe the relationship between words in a text and their frequencies. Considering a long text and assigning ranks to all words by the frequencies in this text, the occurrence probability P (i) of the word with rank i satisfies the formula below, which is known as Zipf first law, where C is a constant.P (i) = [pic] †¦. (1) This formula is further extended into a more generalized form, known as Zipf-like law. P (i) = [pic]†¦. (2) Obviously, [pic]†¦. (3) Now According to (2) and (3), we have C[pic] [pic] Our work is to dynamically calculate for different streams and then according to above Formula (2) and (4), the hotspot can be predicted based on the ranking of an object. 4. 2 Object Hotspot Prediction Model 4. 2. 1 Hotspot Classification We classify hotsp ot into two categories: â€Å"permanent hotspot† and â€Å"stage hotspot†. Permanent hotspot is an object which is frequently accessed regularly.Stage hotspot can be further divided into two types: â€Å"cyclical hotspot† and â€Å"sudden hotspot†. Cyclical hotspot is an object which becomes popular periodically. If an object is considered as a focus suddenly, it is a sudden hotspot. 4. 2. 2. Hotspot Identification Hotspots in distributed stream-processing storage systems can be identified via a ranking policy (sorted by access frequencies of objects). In our design, the hotspot objects will be inserted into a hotspot queue. The maximum queue length is determined by the cache size and the average size of hotspot Objects.If an object’s rank is smaller than the maximum hotspot queue length (in this case, the rank is high), it will be considered as â€Å"hotspot† in our system. Otherwise it will be considered as â€Å"non hotspot†. And t he objects in the queue will be handled by hotspot cache strategy. 4. 2. 3 Hotspot Prediction This is our main section of interest, here we will try to determine the prediction model for hoard content with optimal hoard hit ratio. 5. Schedule of Work |Work |Scheduled Period |Remarks | |Studying revious work on Hoarding |July – Aug 2012 |Complete | |Identifying Problem |Sept 2012 |Complete | |Innovating New Approach |Oct 2012 |Ongoing | |Integrating with Mobile Arena as solution to Hoarding |Nov- Dec 2012 |- | |Simulation And Testing |Jan 2013 |- | |Optimization |Feb 2013 |- | |Simulation And Testing |Mar 2013 |- | |Writing Thesis Work / Journal Publication |Apr –May 2013 |- | 6. Conclusion In this literature survey we have discussed previous related work on hoarding. We have also given the requirements for the new technique that is planned to be design.Also we are suggesting a new approach that is coming under the category of Hoarding with Data Mining Techniques. Recen t studies have shown that the use of proposed technique i. e. Zipfs-Like law for caching over the web contents have improved the hit ratio to a greater extent. Here with this work we are expecting improvements in hit ratio of the local hoard. 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